Social Work Practice

Introduction Social work is a professional area of practice which applies knowledge, skills, research techniques and social theory to improve the lives of individuals, communities and groups.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social Work Practice specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Social work is considered as a helping profession because it is majorly concerned with the plight of people who are in difficult situations with an aim of helping them overcome those difficulties. Social workers work in diverse fields both in the private and public sectors such as in rehabilitation centers, child welfare institutions, humanitarian organizations, borstal institutions and homes of the elderly among others (Hare, 2004). Social workers go through the formal education system with a special bias in the social, biological and behavioral sciences. During training, they are exposed to field practicum in which they get an opportunity to work with various organizations where they merge theory with practice (Healy, 2008). Just like other professions such as law or medicine, social work is guided by values, ethics and codes of conduct. Some of the values include competence, integrity, professionalism, social justice and value for human dignity. Some of the core principles include confidentiality, controlled emotional involvement and client self determination among others. Some of the skills include self awareness, observation and critical thinking (Healy, 2007).Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In this paper, I will explore social work practice by looking at oppression of women by men. I will also look into the knowledge, values and skills which are associated with culturally sensitive practice with diverse populations. Eventually I will engage in a self-awareness exercise by self-administering a value-based as sessment and cultural competency inventory; and finally engage in a thoughtful analysis and discussion of my strengths and weaknesses as they pertain to my cultural competency and how I plan to improve on the weaknesses. Gender and oppression of women Gender refers to the roles associated with a particular sex, either male or female. Males and females are born with physical and biological differences. Some physical differences include height, appearance, weight and physical strength. Biological differences may include sexual reproduction organs and hormonal processes. These differences between males and females have been misused to oppress women in several aspects of life like in education, career, power, leadership, employment and management (Connel, 2009). In the field of management for example, women have been oppressed by men through various ways. For example, the issues of masculinity and femininity have played a role in gendering the field of management (Crosby, Stockdale, Ro pp, 2007). Many organizations are guided by the principles of masculinity which do not have respect for women. In these organizations, the authority of women managers is not respected as the authority of men managers. This leads to a situation whereby the leadership or management by a woman may not be as effective as that of a man because the employees in those organizations do not recognize women as a source of authority and therefore, any guidelines, instructions or regulations given by a woman manager may not be taken seriously by the employees (Hartl, 2003).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Social Work Practice specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In many organizations, women do light jobs such as secretarial work or marketing. The central roles are dominated by men who are responsible for planning, policy making and moving the organizations towards the realization of their mission and vision (Rivas, 2013). Many professional women or the â€Å"working mothers† are faced with role multiplicity. At home, they are supposed to be good mothers and wives. They are supposed to ensure that the children are well fed, are healthy and clean (Gregory, 2003). They are also supposed to take good care of their husbands. At the work place, they are supposed to produce good results either as managers or as normal employees. This makes them fall short of what is expected of them at the work place. The men on the other hand have very few roles to play at home which leaves them with a lot of time to concentrate on their roles in the work place. Due to this, they are able to meet the set targets or expectations of the organizations (Mason, 2002). For the women, reproduction is part of labor which they are not compensated for yet if they do not reproduce children, there would be no human resources to work in the organizations. Women have also been oppressed through promotions in organizations. Some women have to engage in sex with male directors so as to get promoted to the positions of managers. In the work place, women may be sexually or physically abused by their bosses due to the fact that they are perceived as being inferior and not able to resist the harassment or abuse (Coin Budapest, 2010).Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In some communities especially in the African continent, girls are denied the opportunity to gain education with the belief that women’s role in the society is to give birth to as many children as possible and also entertain the men with sex. In Kenya for example, the enrollment rates for girls in some communities like the Turkana is less than 10%, meaning that in every 100 girls of school going age, only 10 go to school. The others are betrothed to elderly men as wives after undergoing female genital cut. This has made women lack leadership, political and technological skills (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2011). In the developing countries mostly in Africa and Asia, poverty is very rampant. The economies are poorly managed and therefore there are few job opportunities. Many people depend on rain fed agriculture which is not sustainable due to lack of rainfall. In these countries, most men flee their homes to search for jobs and leave their wives at home with young ch ildren. These women are not able to take care of the welfare of the children and they strain a lot to ensure that the children are fed, clothed and schooled. Some women are forced to engage in prostitution as a source of income for their families. The women in these countries suffer silently because there are very few women in positions of power and leadership who can advocate for their rights. Women have also been oppressed through being denied the opportunity to inherit property. In the developing countries especially in Africa, women are not supposed to inherit any property from their parents. Among the Turkana of Kenya for example, if a wife does not give birth to a male child, the husband marries another wife who will give birth to a male child. It is this male child who will inherit all the properties of the parents when they die or when they grow old. The reasoning behind this is that women are not supposed to own any property but are instead supposed to be owned as property by men. Since 1974, some improvement has been realized in increasing the number of women in management positions. In the UK for example, the percentage of women who held management positions in 1974 was only 2%. In 2008, the percentage rose to 34.5% (Meulders, 2010). In other parts of the world, women are almost at par with men in various aspects such as leadership, education and technical know how. This is not however to say that oppression of women does not exist but what it means is that many people are slowly realizing that women are just like men and what men can do, women can also do it provided that the playing field is leveled. Effects of women oppression One of the effects of women oppression in the work place is that it leads to role conflict which eventually leads to stress. Role conflict refers to a form of disagreement among the roles held by one individual; that is, roles which correspond to various statuses of the same individual. Role conflict pulls an individual in different directions at the same time. It may be short lived or long lived. A good example to illustrate role conflict is by a working mother. As explained earlier, the mother is expected to deliver good results at the work place and also be a good wife at home through taking care of the children, husband and doing other domestic chores. At the family level, women are oppressed through various ways such as wife battering, marital rape, female genital cut, being denied opportunity to gain education and inherit property, men running away from home among others. Domestic violence is the most common form of women oppression at the family level especially in the developing countries. Domestic violence has traumatizing effects on women. Such women need advocacy, empowerment and counseling for them to heal. There is also need for social workers to agitate for policy change to enable women get education and inherit property. Social workers should also educate the communities to avoid cultur al practices which have been used to oppress women. Social work knowledge Social workers working with culturally sensitive and diverse populations need to have social work knowledge in specific areas. One of the areas of social work knowledge is the knowledge of human behavior. Having knowledge of human behavior helps the social workers understand the cultures, values and norms of specific communities. This in turn helps the social workers package their intervention in such a manner that it does not conflict with the cultural practices, beliefs and norms of the particular communities. Such knowledge also helps the social workers to understand the cultural prejudices in various communities. This understanding of the cultural prejudices enables the social workers to help the people differentiate the facts and fictions in regard to certain prejudices. For example, in a community which believes that women are not allowed to go to school, the social workers can help the people understand that women in other parts of the world are allowed to attain eduction and challenge them to change that kind of perception. Another social work knowledge which is useful for social workers working with culturally sensitive and diverse populations is the knowledge of social justice. Social workers need to have an understanding of social justice so as to help people in communities who suffer social injustice. The social workers should also educate the people about the concept and show them the importance of embracing social justice. Social workers working with culturally sensitive and diverse populations also need social work knowledge about the code of conduct for social workers and the ethics which govern the profession of social work. This knowledge can help the social workers avoid unprofessional conduct which might conflict with certain values, norms and practices of particular groups. Social workers working with such populations also need an understanding of human rights. For e xample, they need to understand the various international laws, treaties and conventions which stipulate various human rights for different categories of people such as employees, children and women among others. This understanding can help the social workers educate the populations for them to know when their rights are violated and what they are supposed to do. However, the social workers must do it in a professional manner so that they are not accused of incitement. Social work values One of the values for social workers working with culturally sensitive and diverse communities is the value of service to humanity. This value is very important for the social workers because it enables them to serve the populations irrespective of their cultural, religious, economic and historical orientations. Social workers without this value may have difficult time and in some cases, they may find it almost impossible to work with some cultural groups. The value of service to humanity also enabl es the social workers to appreciate and empathize with the populations without necessarily sympathizing with them. Another value which is important for social workers working with culturally sensitive and diverse populations is the value of human dignity. Social workers must understand that they have an obligation of respecting the clients and their cultural practices. They have to put aside their personal biases against a certain group for them to help the clients. Some times social workers may consider some practices as weird. However, with the value of human dignity, they are able to acknowledge the fact that clients have a right of self determination. When they understand this, they are able to assist the clients without any obstacles. Social workers also need to have the value of competence and integrity. They need to apply their knowledge, skills and techniques in a professional manner when dealing with clients. The essence of this is that competence and integrity enable the s ocial workers to avoid any questionable behavior or practice. It also enhances the trust and confidence of the clients in the social workers. This also enables the clients to open up to the social workers and give as much information as possible. With the information and cooperation from the clients, the social workers are able to solve the problems affecting the clients or refer those which they cannot handle. This enhances the acceptance of the social workers by the communities (Morreau Benson, 2012). Social work skills One important skill which social workers working with culturally sensitive and diverse populations should have is the skill of observation. Observation has to do with going beyond what people say and focusing on their body language and reaction to some social situations. The skill also has to do with doing more listening than talking. This is because the social workers are supposed to treat the clients as the best teachers of their own problems. If the social work ers do more listening and observing than talking, they are able to gather as much information as possible which is very crucial for the interventions. Another skill for dealing with culturally sensitive and diverse populations is the skill of critical thinking. This has to do with how social workers interpret the information they gather from clients either through interviewing, listening, observing or reading. The social workers should apply critical thinking in order to interpret the information correctly. Lack of critical thinking may lead to wrong diagnosis, treatment and intervention. The social workers should therefore understand the information correctly without any personal biases Another skill which is important when working with culturally sensitive and diverse populations is the skill of self awareness. Social workers need to understand how their background, perceptions, biases, motivations and prejudices may affect their relationship with clients. If social workers have l ow levels of self awareness, chances of acting improperly are increased. It is therefore very important that the social workers put aside any subjective reasoning and replace it with objectivity for them to be able to effectively assist the clients. The skill of self awareness also helps the social workers to identify transference in clients. Transference is a situation in which clients associate their fate with the social workers. For example, a female client whose husband is violent may easily confuse a male social worker for her husband; she may do this through making statements such as ‘you men are really bad’. In such a situation, the social worker is supposed to counter the transference by helping the client understand that his role is to help her out of the problem and not to take the blame of others (Tsui, 2010). Social workers working with culturally sensitive and diverse populations also need to have excellent verbal communication skills. This is because commu nication is the only way that the social workers can use to understand the clients and for the clients to understand the social workers. They must be able to understand how to communicate with different groups at different times. For example, the way a social worker is supposed to talk to an elderly refugee woman is not the same way he or she can talk to a young child who is a school drop out. Verbal communication is an important asset for social workers working with culturally sensitive and diverse populations because it enables them to effectively advocate for the clients especially those who are oppressed or marginalized. The skill can enable social workers to influence policy change or development for the improvement of people’s welfare. Apart from verbal communication, social workers need to have the skill of documentation. Proper documentation enables social workers to keep track of every aspect of their interventions and this becomes an asset for them when they want to influence the development or change of a certain social policy. Cultural competency inventory My total score for the value based assessment and cultural competency inventory is 75. What this means is that I am headed in the right direction as far as embracing cultural diversity is concerned. I would have wished to score 80 and above but this is not the case, probably because I am yet to cover some topics in therapeutic approaches and the relationship between myself as a therapist and clients. My strengths and weaknesses in cultural competency Based on my value based assessment and cultural competency, there are the areas which I scored poorly and others which I scored well. Those which I scored well are my areas of strength while those which I scored poorly are my areas of weakness. One of my strengths in cultural competency is that I like meeting new people especially those who are different from me in terms of race, gender and culture. Being a Russian lady for instance, I like as sociating myself with African or Asian men. I also love and embrace the culture of non whites such as the African Americans and Asian Americans. Another area of strength is the fact that I understand that I am independent and do appreciate the views of other people even if those views are in contrary to my own views. I am able to control my personal biases when interpreting the actions of those who are different from me. I also appreciate various communication methods used by various groups of people. Similarly, I am able to understand that other people may stereotype against me and therefore I am able to work against those stereotypes in order to interact with such people in a harmonious manner. I am also good in sorting out my values to know which one to compromise in order to communicate with others without losing my integrity as a social worker. I am also able to seek clarifications from people in regards to what they are saying so as to get the correct meaning of what they say. I like and accept others they way they are and avoid any remarks which may hurt certain groups in the community such as women, the people of color or those who are less fortunate in the society. One of my main weaknesses is that I do more talking than listening. This is because sometimes I listen as I talk. This is not good because I may not be able to capture what the other person is saying. I may also not be in a position to observe the body language of others which is also part of listening. Sometimes I also use my cultural jargon or slag when talking to people from other cultural backgrounds. This is a weakness because others may mistaken my language jargon as lack of respect for them. I am also weak in judging people based on the fluency of their languages. This is a weakness because it amounts to biases which may lead to wrong interpretation of messages by those who are from other cultural backgrounds. Sometimes I use some ethnic jokes when referring to some groups of people who are from different ethnic backgrounds but I get offended when others use the same language on me. This is a weakness because some ethnic jokes may hurt or provoke some people. I plan to improve my areas of weakness by doing further reading on the area of human behavior. I also plan to gain more knowledge in interpersonal skills and how to gain and apply them in various cultural settings. Also in my plan is to learn how to appreciate others and how to avoid judgmental attitudes towards particular populations. I also need to check on my listening skills by learning the art of doing more listening than talking. This is because doing so would boost by ability to get as much information as possible from others and especially from clients. My conceptual framework for practice My future conceptual framework as a social worker is the strength based perspective of social work practice. This perspective has to do with using people’s strengths as a basis of therapy. The perspective aims to capitalize on the strengths of clients (individuals and groups) to form a strong foundation for therapy. It is based on the belief that despite the fact that people have problems, there is something which they are good at or they have some useful information, history or practices which can be used to overcome the problems which they are faced with. It is also based on the belief that empowering people with information is useful for successful therapy (Rapp, 2007). Implications of the perspective to practice One of the implications of the strengths based perspective to practice is that it has reversed roles between the therapists and the clients. What this means is that the therapists must restrain their expertise and make the clients be the experts in solving their problems. The therapists are supposed to play the role of empowering the people to become experts in addressing the problems which face them. In other words, the therapists’ role is to create a sustainable intervention such that the clients are able to handle their problems even without the assistance of the therapists. Social workers using this perspective must therefore refrain from using stigmatizing language, having negative perceptions and labeling when dealing with clients. This is because such negative language or perceptions interferes with the ability of the social workers to effectively capacity build and empower the clients (Rapp, 2007). When capacity building and empowering clients, social workers must be realistic; that is, they must ensure that the clients actually have those strengths which can be used as a starting point for a sustainable intervention. They must also consider the magnitude of the problem affecting the clients and evaluate the clients’ ability to effectively handle the problem when empowered (Rapp, 2007). Oppressed women usually suffer from stigma and feelings of inadequacy. They also undergo through emotional, psychological and social distress d ue to oppression. As a social worker working with oppressed women, I will apply the strengths based perspective to empower such women with information so as to resist oppression by men. For instance, I will educate them about their rights to education, employment and fair treatment. I will also highlight their areas of strength when dealing with men. For example, the fact that women are very good in negotiations, have patience and do not easily lose their temper can be used by a woman who is a victim of domestic violence to talk to the husband to avoid such violence. I will also empower the oppressed women with information, skills and tactics of resisting male oppression both at the family setting and at the work place. For example, I will inform them of the relevant agencies where they can report any form of oppression without the fear of victimization. Through this perspective, I will go a long way in fighting the vice of women oppression. References Connel, R. (2009). Gender.(2nd ed).Washington DC: Polity Press. Coin Budapest.(2010). COIN 2009 international workshops: revised selected papers. Volume 5 of Coordination, organizations, institutions, and norms in agent systems. Secaucus, NJ: Springer. Crosby, F.J, Stockdale, M.S. Ropp, S.A. (2007). Sex Discrimination in the Workplace: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Gregory, R.F. (2003). Women and workplace discrimination: overcoming barriers to gender equality. New York: Rutgers University Press. Hare, I. (2004). Defining Social Work for the 21st Century: The International Federation of Social Workers’ Revised Definition of Social Work. International Social Work, 47: 407-424. Hartl, K.(2003). Expatriate women managers: gender, culture, and career. Volume 12 of Schriftenreihe Organisation Personal. 10117 Berlin: Rainer Hampp Verlag. Healy, L.M. (2007). Uni-versalism and cultural relativism in social work ethics. International Social Work, 50: 11-26. Healy, L.M. (2008). Exp loring the history of social work as a human rights profession. International Social Work ,51: 735-748. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Population and Housing Census. Web. Mason,L. (2002). The Working Mother’s Guide to Life: Strategies, Secrets, and Solutions. New York: Three Rivers Press. Meulders, D. (2010). Meta-Analysis of Gender and Science Research. Web. Morreau, W., Benson, K. (2012). Human trafficking: Improving victim identification and service provision. International Social Work, 55: 488-503. Rapp, R.C. (2007). The Strengths Perspective: Proving â€Å"My Strengths† and â€Å"It Works† Soc Work, 52(2): 185–186. Rivas, F.S. (2013). Burnout, workplace support, job satisfaction and life satisfaction among social workers in Spain: A structural equation model International Social Work, 56: 228-246. Tsui , M. (2010). From resilience to resistance: A reconstruction of the strengths perspective in social work practice. International Social Work, 53: 233-245. This essay on Social Work Practice was written and submitted by user Reese Puckett to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Agatha Christie essays

Agatha Christie essays On September 15, 1890, in Torquay, England, the worlds most successful mystery writer, Agatha Miller, was born. Her father was an independently wealthy American from New York, while her mother was an English housewife. She had two older siblings; her sister Margaret was the oldest child and her brother Louis was the middle child. Agatha Christies brother and sister were always away at school. Agatha, unlike her siblings had no formal teaching and did not want to go to school. So, Agatha was taught mathematics from her father, and her mother taught her everything else. Agathas mother was an intelligent woman with an original mind. Her mother had an original mind and made learning a fun game. She was always encouraging Agatha to write. One day, when Agatha was sick, her mother made her write poetry and a story. At the age of sixteen Agatha was sent to school in Paris to learn how to become a young lady and to study singing. In 1914 Agatha Miller married Colonel Archibald Christie. He would later go off to fight in World War I and Agatha would work in a hospital. During her time in there she would learn about the poisons she would later write about in some of her books. During the war her sister, Margaret, challenged Agatha to write a mystery story the reader couldnt solve. Agatha accepted the challenge because the thought it would be a good way to alleviate boredom. The Mysterious Affair at Styles was the first mystery novel that Agatha Christie wrote. However, it was not very well accepted. Agatha sent it to many publishing companies and only Bodley Head, a company Agatha forgot she had sent the book to, would accept it. The book featured her most famous detective, Hercule Poirot, who would be featured in many of Agatha Christies books. Part of Herculess character was that he was very neat and tidy. He had waxed mustaches and had a conceited faith. Hercule also had ...

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Stress Effects and Ways to Reduce Stress Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Stress Effects and Ways to Reduce Stress - Essay Example However, there are number of causes of stress. Like emotional stress, physical stress, environmental stresses, energetic and health stress. Physical stress occurs due to over physical work/activity and it is very common in adults. Most importantly, physical stress effects regularly on many body joints changes and will create pain in your later life. Stress can affect you in the two ways; long term and short term. Long term stress is much worst than short term; Moreover; long term stress is more dangerous because it creates regular changes in your body in many ways. In general term, there are there broad sectors of stress effects. From the medical point of view, the physiological stress if activate in your brain, it will triggers the pituitary gland and sympathetic nervous system as a result of its activation - it creates regular changes in your adrenal gland which raises your heart rates. Furthermore, human liver produces energy throughout the stress situation and in the process, the patient can suffer stomach pain, constipation and so forth. The physiological stress raises your heart beats up to 71 to 90 beats in a minute to 200 per minute. Yes, Stress effects emotiona... In general term, there are there broad sectors of stress effects. 1) Physiological Effects From the medical point of view, the physiological stress if activate in your brain, it will triggers the pituitary gland and sympathetic nervous system as a result of its activation - it creates regular changes in your adrenal gland which raises your heart rates. Furthermore, human liver produces energy throughout the stress situation and in the process, the patient can suffer stomach pain, constipation and so forth. The physiological stress raises your heart beats up to 71 to 90 beats in a minute to 200 per minute. Emotional Effects Yes, Stress effects emotionally as well and if it affects emotionally, it can create sound changes in your brain function. As a result of its activation, it adversely affects your mental capabilities, - your logical thinking becomes illogical, and you become anxious for no reason. However, it can be minor or major, major stress could lead you to a suicide. Besides this, it alters your behavioral patterns suddenly in these feelings; you become very sensitive and can be very irritating. You could enter into an argument with others for no reason; whatsoever, you can suddenly starting fighting with others at work. It may turn your mind on pessimistic thinking on all aspects, by and large behavioral changes adversely affect decision making powers either at work or at home concerns. Also, you could become gloomy and it makes you less tolerant. Physical Effects Physical effects includes frequent headaches, back ache and other muscle pain, sleep difficulties and exhaustion, cramp in the neck and shoulders, appetite and weight changes, anxiety, feelings of being helpless and hopelessness, fatigue, memory and concentration problems however

The Indian Pharmaceutical Industry

The Indian Pharmaceutical Industry The Indian Pharmaceutical Industry today is in the front rank of Indias science-based industries with wide ranging capabilities in the complex field of drug manufacture and technology. A highly organized sector, the Indian Pharmaceutical Industry is estimated to be worth, $4.5 billion, growing at about 8 to 9 percent annually. It ranks very high in the third world, in terms of technology, quality and range of medicines manufactured. From simple headache pills to sophisticated antibiotics and complex cardiac compounds, almost every type of medicine is now made indigenously. The number of purely Indian pharmaceutical companies is fairly low. Indian pharmaceutical industry is mainly operated and controlled by dominant foreign companies having subsidiaries in India due to availability of cheap labour in India at lowest cost. Most pharmaceutical companies operating in India, even the multinationals, employ Indians almost exclusively from the lowest ranks to high level management. Mirroring the social structure, firms are very hierarchical. Homegrown pharmaceuticals, like many other businesses in India, are often a mix of public and private enterprise. Although many of these companies are publicly owned, leadership is passed from father to son and the founding family holds a majority share. In 2002, over 20,000 registered drug manufacturers in India sold $9 billion worth of formulations and bulk drugs. 85% of these formulations were sold in India while over 60% of the bulk drugs were exported, mostly to the United States and Russia. Most of the players in the Indian market are small-to-medium enterprises. It has been estimated that 250 of the largest companies control 70% of the Indian market. The 1970 Patent Act., made the multinational companies to represent only 35% of the market, down from 70%, thirty years ago. In terms of the global market, India currently holds a modest 1-2% share, but it has been growing at approximately 10% per year. India gained its foothold on the global scene with its innovatively engineered generic drugs and active pharmaceutical ingredients (API), and it is now seeking to become a major player in outsourced clinical research as well as contract manufacturing and research. There are 74 U.S. FDA-approved manufacturing facilities in India, more than in any other country outside the U.S, and in 2005, almost 20% of all Abbreviated New Drug Applications (ANDA) to the FDA were filed by Indian companies. Growths in other fields notwithstanding, generics are still a large part of the picture. As such, the Indian pharmaceutical industry has now become the third largest producer in the world and is poised to grow into an industry of $ 20 billion by 2015, from the current turnover of $ 12 billion. As a result, manufacturing expertise and efficiency were the only requirements to participate in this industry, creating low barriers of entry. The most critical challenge facing the global pharmaceutical industry today is the increasing cost of drug discovery and development and the increasing time to market. This is further compounded by: Impending patent expirations of blockbuster molecules Pricing pressures Low public opinion Challenges to intellectual property by increasingly aggressive generic companies. Re-importation pressures Medicare/Medicaid reform Increasing regulatory hurdles This scenario is forcing the multinational pharmaceutical companies (MNCs) to rethink their strategic options in order to exploit their core competencies across the globe. In this situation, India stands to a gain a lot because of its inherent advantages like stability, culture, cost, and educated workforce. This has led to increased alliances and collaborations as a result; the leading Indian pharmaceutical companies have become some of the most efficient manufacturing units in the world. In fact, India has the highest number of US FDA (Food and Drug Administration) certified manufacturing facilities outside USA. The overall phenomenal progress made by the industry in the last three decades has instilled a strong belief in the government and the pharmaceutical companies in India that the country has a competitive strength and it should be enhanced by suitable policy measures and firm specific actions with regards to export, innovation, strategic alliances and investment. The pharmaceutical policy 2002 echoes the same sentiments and has shifted focus of the policy from self reliance in drug manufacturing to the objective of enhancing global competitiveness. The introduction of policy says: The basic objectives of the governments policy relating to drug and pharmaceutical sector were enumerated in drug policy of 1986. These basic objectives still remain largely valid, however, the drug and the pharmaceutical industry in the country today faces new challenges on account of liberalization of the Indian economy the globalization of the world economy and on account of new obligations undertaken by India under the WTO agreements. These challenges require a change in current pharmaceutical policy and the need for new initiatives beyond those enumerated in drug policy 1986, as modified in 1994, so that policy inputs are directed more towards promoting accelerated growth of the pharmaceutical industry and towards making it more internationally competitive. The need for radically improving the policy framework for knowledge-based industry has also been acknowledged by the government. The Prime Ministers Advisory Council on Trade and Industry has made important recommendations regarding knowledge-based industry. The Pharmaceutical industry has been identified as one of the most important knowledge based industries in which India has a comparative advantage. THE GROWTH STAGE OF INDIAN PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY SECTION-1 2.1 GROWTH STAGES OF INDIAN PHARMA INDUSTRY Bengal Chemicals Pharmaceuticals Limited (BCPL), established in 1901, is a Public Sector Undertaking (PSU) of the Government of India and is Indias first pharmaceutical company. The company was started by Prafulla Chandra Roy in Kolkata (then known as Calcutta) and has since manufactured such household Indian products as Hospitol, naphthalene balls, and Phenol. The company is headquartered in Kolkata and reported aggregated revenues of Rs 6,199 lakhs (US$ 138.2 million) in fiscal 2006. The Nascent industry, however, received setbacks in the post world war-II period as a result of new therapeutic developments in the western countries that triggered natural elimination of older drugs from market usage by newer drugs like sulpha ,antibiotics, vitamins, hormones, antihistamine, tranquilizers, psycho pharmacological substances etc. This culminated in the discontinuation of local production based on indigenous materials and forced the industry to import bulk drugs meant for processing them in to formulations and for selling in the domestic market. Figure- 2.1: stages of Growth of Indian Pharmaceutical Industry . Source: ISID Working Paper, 2006/05. The government started to encourage the growth of drug manufacturing by Indian companies in the early 1960s. In the post independence period, Indian pharmaceutical industry exhibited four stages of growth (see Figure 2.1 2.2). In the first stage during 1950s-60s, the industry was largely dominated by foreign enterprises and it continued to rely on imported bulk drugs notwithstanding its inclusion in the list of basic industries for plan targeting and monitoring. Foreign firms, enjoying a strong patent protection under the Patent and Design Act 1911, were averse to local production and mostly opted for imports from home country as working of the patent. Given the inadequate capabilities of the domestic sector to start local production of bulk drugs and hesitation of foreign firms to do so, the government decided to intervene through starting public sector enterprises. This led to the establishment of the Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (IDPL) plants at Rishikesh and Hyderabad in 1961 and the Hindustan Antibiotics at Pimpri, Pune, in 1954, to manufacture penicillin. The starting of the public sector enterprises has been an important feature in the evolution of the pharmaceutical industry as it assumed initiative roles in producing bulk drugs indigenously and led to significant knowledge spillovers on the private domestic sector. The second growth stage, of the industry took place in the 1970s. The enactment of the Indian Patent Act (IPA) 1970 and the New Drug Policy (NDP) 1978 during this stage are important milestones in the history of the pharmaceutical industry in India. The IPA 1970 brought in a number of radical changes in the patent regime by reducing the scope of patenting to only processes and not pharmaceutical products and also for a short period of seven years from the earlier period of 16 years. It also recognizes compulsory licensing after three years of the patent. The enactment of the process patent contributed significantly to the local technological development via adaptation, reverse engineering and new process development. As there exits several ways to produce a drug, domestic companies innovated cost-effective processes and flooded the domestic market with cheap but quality drugs. This led to the steady rise of the domestic firms in the market place. The NDP 1978 has increased the pressure on foreign firms to manufacture bulk drugs locally and from the basic stage possible. Foreign ownership up to 74 per cent under the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) 1973 was permitted to only those firms producing high technology drugs. Foreign firms that are simply producing formulations based on imported bulk drugs were required to start local production from the basic stage within a two year period. Otherwise were required to reduce their foreign ownership holding to 40 per cent. New foreign investments were to be permitted only when the production involves high technology bulk drugs and formulations thereon. In the third growth stage or phase of evolution Indian pharmaceutical industry developed modern technology for manufacturing of all dosage forms like tablets, capsules ,liquid ,oral, injectables etc.. This domestic industry based on large scale reverse engineering and process innovation achieved near self sufficiency in production of bulk drugs belonging to various major therapeutic groups resulting in lasting impact on competitive position of Indian pharmaceutical firms in national and international markets. During , 1980-90s ,Indian pharmaceutical industry had emerged as one of the most export oriented sectors in Indian pharmaceutical industry with more than 30% of the production being exported to the foreign market. In 1991, domestic firms contribute about 70-80% market share in case of bulk drugs and formulations respectively. The trade deficits of seventies had been replaced by trade surpluses of 1980s. (FIG-2.1). The fourth stage of evolution of industry during 1990s witnessed dramatic changes in the policy regime governing the pharmaceutical industry. The drug de-licensing, hundred percent foreign investments is permitted through automatic route and price control has been significantly reduced. One of the major factors that have increased the confidence of foreign multinationals looking for local opportunities in India is the adoption of a new product patent regime in January 2005, before that India had already carried out three amendments in march-1999, June2002 and April 2005, in the patent act of 1970 to bring to bring Indian patent regime in harmony with the WTO agreement on Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs). The third and the final one, known as the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005 came into force on 4th April 2005 and introduced product patents in drugs, food and chemicals sectors. The term of patenting has also been increased to a 20 year period. The number of pharmaceut ical units has also increased to over 23,000 in 2002, further more Fig: 2.2: Growth phase of Indian pharmaceutical industry graph1 SOURCE: BEST PHARMA INDUSTRY REPORT-2011-INDIA The fifth stage is in progression (Fig.2.2), in which we are observing investment in innovation and research, with enactment of new IP laws and investments in biotechnology aided companies. There is promising growth in production of bulk drugs and formulations (Table: 2.1) from Rs 10 crores in 1947-48 to Rs 21100 crores in 2002-03 in formulations and almost nil in 1947-48 to Rs 5400 crores in 2002-03 in bulk drugs production. The drug industry also becomes capable to spent 497crores in 2002-2003 from almost nil in 1947-48 on research and development of new molecules. All in all Indian drug sales are expected to rise by an annual 8% to nearly $26.59 bn between 2006 and 2015 and further is the matter of wait and watch depending up on conditions prevailing in international and domestic markets. In the UNIDO-classification of developing countries, according to the state of art in the pharmaceutical sector India is ranked among the top and today India manufactures over 400 bulk drugs and around 60,000 formulations. 2.2 Drug industry-growth As shown in, Table: 2.1 and table2.2, depicts the growth progress in production of bulk drugs and finished formulations. India produces bulk drugs related to various therapeutic areas. Indian pharmaceutical industry, manufactures over 400 bulk drugs and roughly 60,000 finished medicines used in different formulations. 2.3 THE GROWTH SCENARIO IN CONTINEUM: Indias US $ 3.1 billion pharmaceutical industry is growing at the rate of 14 percent per year. It is one of the largest and most advanced among the developing countries. Domestic Demand The industry has enormous growth potential. Factors listed below determine the rising demand for pharmaceuticals. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The growing population of over of a billion à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Increasing income à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Demand for quality healthcare service à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Changing lifestyle has led to change in disease patterns, and increased demand for new medicines to combat lifestyle related diseases. More than 85 per cent of the formulations produced in the country are sold in the domestic market, there has also been a record increase in consumption of drugs worldwide. India with its large population has recorded the therapeutic segmentation in healthcare market with changes in pattern of drug consumption in turn affecting its production.Fig:2.3 shows the percentage increase in sales in various therapeutic segments. India is largely self-sufficient in case of formulations. Some life saving, new generation under-patent formulations continue to be imported, especially by MNCs, which then market them in India. Overall, the size of the domestic formulations market is growing strongly at 10 percent per annum (Table, 2.4), with rs23047crores in 2006-07, from rs2350crores in 1987-88. Fig: 2.3: Percentage Increase therapeutic segments. SOURCE: ORG-MARG AUDIT-2011. Table 2.4 shows demand for drugs as per therapeutic segments, showing categories, for treatment of lifestyle-related diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and central nervous system are on the increase. Health scenario is also changing. There are around 700,000 new cases of cancer each year and total of around 2.5 million cases. It is estimated that there are around 40 million people in India with diabetes and the number is rising, 5.1 million HIV/AIDS patients, and 14 million tuberculosis cases. According to industry reports, while the Indian pharmaceutical industry witnessed a growth of 7 to 8 percent, the cardio-vascular segment recorded 15 to 17 percent growth and anti-diabetes segment of over 10-12 percent growth. So, with the increase in diseases and various ailments, consumption of medicines is on increase day by day (refer, Fig: 2.3). As per estimates, Over 20,000 registered pharmaceutical manufacturers exist in the country. The domestic pharmaceuticals industry output is expected to exceed Rs260 billion in the financial year 2002, which accounts for merely 1.3% of the global pharmaceutical sector. Of this, bulk drugs had accounted for Rs 54 bn (21%) and formulations, the remaining Rs 210 bn (79%). Table: 2.5, shows the 16.98% CAGR for bulk drugs amounting to rs17, 307.02 crores in 2009-10. 2.4 BULK INDUSTRY GROWTH EX-IM MARKET The export market growth has been one of the most outstanding features of the Indian pharmaceutical industry (Table-2.5). Negligible before the 1970s, exports started picking up after the abolition of product patents in 1972, accelerating in the 1980s and then growing rapidly since the mid-1990s. In recent years, exports have been increasing annually at more than 20%. The proportion of exports in net sales for the studied 120 companies was 44%. The export market was found to be larger than the domestic market not only for large companies, such as Ranbaxy (Now owned by Japanese Daichi Sankyo Corporation), Dr. Reddys or Cipla , but also for smaller companies such as Granules , Shilpa Medicare, Kopran , Transchem, and Pure Pharmaceutical etc. The period between 2000 and 2010 witnessed Indias top 10 drug companies growing in their sales turnovers, ranging between Rs 500-Rs 800 crores, to professionally-run MNC generics manufacturing companies with turnovers ranging from Rs 3,500 crores t o over Rs 7,000 crores. India is among the top 20 pharmaceutical exporters world-wide. Most of these exporting firms earlier dependent on bulk drug supplies, small exports to unregulated markets in Africa and Asia and formulation sales in the domestic market, the last 10 years saw them aggressively tapping regulated markets of the US and Europe and penetrating into newer and emerging market Exports Over 60 per cent of Indias bulk drug production is exported. Indias pharmaceutical exports are to the tune of Rs 87 billion, of which formulations contribute nearly 55 per cent and the rest 45 per cent comes from bulk drugs. In financial year 2005, exports grew by 21 per cent. Domestic pharmaceutical export, growing at 30 per cent per annum, touched a new height of US $ 4.8 billion in the financial year 2006-07. The years exports will push the drug sectors contribution to Indias Forex earnings to 7.75 per cent from the current 5 per cent. The growth in drug exports, despite the pressing generic competition in the global markets, is attributed to increased Abbreviated New Drug Applications (ANDAs) approvals in the US market and contribution from unconventional markets in Latin America, Australia and the emerging markets in the Middle East and African Region. The formulations and exports are largely to developing nations in CIS, South East Asia, Africa and Latin America. In the last 3 years generic exports to developed countries have picked up.In the coming years, opening up of US generics market and anti AIDS market in Africa will boost exports. Indias pharmaceutical sector has seen unprecedented changes in the past decades ensuing for a remarkable growth in its exports (pharmaceutical exports occupy a share of 4.4% to 5.2% of Indias total exports over the last 6 years) and exports grew at a CAGR of around 22% in the 6 year period of 2004-05 to 2009-10( Fig:2.4). Indias growth story in itself vindicates its potential; it had a $ 333.33m turnover in 1980 to around $22.30 bn. by 2010-11 FIG: 2.4 PHARMA EXPORT TOTAL EXPORT SHARE pharmaceutical industry in the country today faces new challenges on account of LIbralisation of the Indian economy graph2.JPG SOURCE: Indian pharmaceutical export [emailprotected] 2.5 Revenue from Export As earlier discussed India accounts for less than two per cent of the world market for pharmaceuticals, with an estimated market value of US $ 10.4 billion in 2007 at consumer prices, or around US $ 9 per capita but has the potential to reach more than 2% by 2020. India currently represents just US $ 6 billion of the $ 550 billion global pharmaceutical industry but its share is increasing at 10 percent a year, compared to 7 percent annual growth for the world market overall. Also, while the Indian sector represents just 8 percent of the global industry total by volume, putting it in fourth place worldwide, it accounts for 13 percent by value, and its drug exports have been growing 30 percent annually. Cipla, Nicholas Piramal, Ranbaxy, Zydus Cadila, Dr. Reddys are the few Indian pharmaceutical companies, which are known at the global level due to their quality products. The Indian market for over-the-counter medicines (OTCs) is worth about $940 million and is growing 20 percent a year, or double the rate for prescription medicines. The industrys exports were worth more than $3.75 billion in 2004-05 and they have been growing at a compound annual rate of 22.7 percent over the last few years, according to the governments draft National pharmaceuticals Policy for 2006, published in January 2006. The Policy estimates that, by the year 2010, the industry has the potential to achieve $22.40 billion in formulations, with bulk drug production going up from $1.79 billion to $5.60 billion. Import Imports have registered a CAGR of only 2 per cent in the past 5 years. Import of bulk drugs have slowed down in the recent years as per DGIC reported data in the year 2010-11. The value of export was Rs 10,937 Crores, recording a declining growth of 9.82% as compared to 15.15% in 2009-10. The situation is advantageous and good sign, as the industry is becoming self reliant in production and less dependent on foreign markets. Based on the retrospective data, USA, Germany, Russia, UK, China, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Nigeria, Netherlands, Spain, Turkey, Ukraine, Vietnam, Israel, Italy, Mexico, UAE, Singapore, Iran had been potential importers of Indian Drugs. Countries like South Africa, Israel, Turkey, Kenya, Singapore, UK, China, Russia, Italy and Vietnam etc. have been identified to be potential prospective markets with high growth rates of imports from India. Africa, Latin America, ASEAN and CIS countries with huge demands deem them to be put in the category of focus countries as these are the emerging markets and have a huge potential with day in day out incremental growth rates of per capita drugs consumptions supported by treaties like SAFTA (with SAARC), treaties with GCC, EU, Japan, Korea etc. As shown in table: 2.10, based on such estimates, it has been predicted that the 17% export growth of Rs 248,000 crores would be achieved in 2019-20 with a domestic growth of 22% amounting to Rs 233,000c rores. Section-II CROSS BORDER ACQUISITIONS IN INDIAN PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY 2.6 INDIAN PHARMACEUTICAL SECTOR CROSS-BORDER ACQUISITION The health-care costs are rising world-wide. Leading companies across the world are merging. Strategic alliances and collaborations are taking place in order to meet the increasing RD budgetary requirement that exceed billion dollars each for many leading global pharmaceutical players. Indian Drug manufacturers are pursuing foreign acquisitions due to their need to: Improve global competitiveness Move up the value chain Create and enter new markets Increase their product offering Acquire assets (including research and contract manufacturing firms, in order to further boost their outsourcing capabilities) and new products Consolidate their market shares Compensate for continued sluggishness in their home market. Often there is a significant overlap of expenditure in creating manufacturing assets or investing in RD either in generics or in basic research resulting into wastages at national level. Consequently corporate have indulged either in acquisitions or mergers to avoid duplication of investments and capture larger market share at global place. Table 2.7 shows the data of number of overseas acquisitions by Indian pharmaceutical Industry. We can conclude that the year 2005 witnessed the maximum number of overseas acquisition due to paradigm change in pharmaceutical policies and enactment of certain new laws which are later discussed in this chapter. Indian companies had gained a lot by these cross border acquisitions and details of which has been given in table 2.8 Many Indian companies are seeking to expand their distinctive capabilities by acquiring specific skills, knowledge and technology abroad that are either unavailable or of inadequate quality at home. By mergers and acquisitions they get advantage of acquiring new resources and gain entry to new markets for better profitability. Table2.8 shows the number of cross border acquisitions by Indian companies with their focus areas. 2.7 INDIAN PHARMACEUTICAL MARKET AND THE WORLD : DISCUSSION The period between 2000 and 2010 witnessed Indias top 10drug companies growing in their sales turnovers, ranging between Rs 500-Rs 800 crore, top professionally-run MNC generics manufacturing companies with turnovers ranging from Rs3,500 crore to over Rs 7,000 crore. India is among the top 20 pharmaceutical exporters world-wide. Most of these exporting firms earlier depended on bulk drug supplies, small exports to unregulated markets in Africa and Asia and formulation sales in the domestic market, the last 10years saw them aggressively tapping regulated markets of the US and Europe and penetrating into newer and emerging markets. The Indian industry had filed only 3 marketing applications with the USFDA in 1998, the number swelled to 148 in 2009. Approximately $123bn of generic products is at risk (subject to patent renewal approvals by regulators) of losing patents by 2012.Even at a conservative estimate of 15% opportunity this translates into $18.4bn opportunity for India. However the figures need to be appropriately deflated since Indian opportunity will lie in generics equivalent of branded drugs, which would be cheaper. Ageing populations of the US (plus the 2010 US Healthcare Reforms in action), China European economies leading to the more and more expenditure on medicines and appreciation in the per capita consumption value of the drug products with cheaper rates. As global markets such as North America, Europe and Japan continue to slow down (graphical representation below), pharmaceutical companies are scanning markets for new growth opportunities to boost drug discovery potential, reduce time to market and squeeze costs along the value chain. The Industry is beginning to realize that some of the most promising opportunities will come from emerging markets (Asia/Australia/Africa Latin America). IMSHealth and other sources suggest that emerging markets (China, India, Brazil, Russia, Turkey, Mexico and South Korea) will contribute to over 40% of the incremental growth of the global Pharmaceutical industry over the next decade. With its enormous advantage ,including a large well educated ,skilled and English speaking workforce, low operational costs and improving regulatory infrastructure, India has the potential to become the regions hub for pharmaceutical and biotechnology discovery research, manufacturing, exporting and health care services within the next decade. However, in order for this to happen, it is imperative that the regulatory environment continues to improve . otherwise ,India will have to face tough competition from china leading to capture of market shares by china as their government strong commitment and pro industry policies have produced a favorable and protective environment for not only product patent but also for crucial data protection so while developing an Indian collaborative RD strategy, pharmaceutical MNCs should keep in mind certain issues like data and IP security, performance metrics, and quality standards, and address and evaluate these upfront to ensure a successful relati onship. Although the major factor that has increased the confidence of foreign multinationals looking for local opportunities in India is the adoption of a new product patent regime in January 2005. This already had facilitated concurrent global phase II and III clinical trials. A new patent regime has changed the dynamics of the Indian pharmaceuticals industry in other respects, too. Several leading domestic producers have begun to conduct original research into new chemical entities (NCEs) and novel drug delivery systems. However, these companies are likely to license most of these drug candidates to Western pharmaceutical companies, because few Indian companies can afford the high costs and failure rates associated with developing an NCE. In this context, several Indian firms have already entered into research partnerships with multinationals. Some pharmaceutical MNCs like AstraZeneca have opened their own captive research centers in India to take advantage of the low costs as we ll as availability of high quality intellectual work force. Russia 2013, marketing insight estimates. (ASSOCHAM). IMS estimates the healthcare market in India at $31.59 bn. by 2020, whereas the global management consulting major, McKinsey Co. predicts that the Indian pharmaceutical market is expected to touch $40 by 2015. The industry has given employment to approximately 2.86 mn people and has around 20,053 units. Globally, India is 4th in terms of volume (8% of worlds production), 13th in terms of value, and 17th in terms of pharmaceutical export value. The drugs and pharmaceuticals exported are worth over $3.8 bn. Section-III INDIAN PHARMACEUTICAL MARKET 2.8 DOMESTIC PHARMACEUTICAL MARKET The pharmaceutical industry in India meets around 70% of the countrys demand for bulk drugs, drug intermediates, pharmaceutical formulations, chemicals, tablets, capsules, orals and injectibles. There are about 250 large units and about 8000 Small Scale Units, which form the core of the pharmaceutical industry in India (including 5 Central Public Sector Units). These units produce the complete range of pharmaceutical formulations, i.e., medicines ready for consumption by patients and about 350 bulk drugs, i.e., chemicals having therapeutic value and used for production of pharmaceutical-formulations. As discussed in earlier chapters about the Indian Pharmaceutical sector which is highly fragmented with more than 20,000 registered units. It has expanded drastically in the last two decades. The leading 250 pharmaceutical companies control 70% of the market with market leader holding nearly 7% of the market share. It is an extremely fragmented market with severe price competition and government price control. North Indian states UTs are also engaged in production of pharmaceutical products, few states like Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, are also providing tax holidays so as to motivate the pharma companies to enhance their production facilities, more over the climatic conditions and other macro factors are suitable for the growth of pharma and especially biotech., Industries in these two states. Table2.14 shows the state wise distribution in north India. FiG.-2.6 :STATE- WISE DISTRIBUTION OF PHARMACEUTICAL SECTOR IN INDIA, 2010-11 . graph3.JPG Source: Annual report: 201

Social Policy Dissertation

Overview of Area The New Deal for lone parents has focussed on the notion of making it easier for lone parents to return to work. The underlying aim of the policy has been stated to be making it easier for parents, particularly lone parents, back to work by making the issues relating to childcare easier to overcome. Despite this seemingly strong policy to improve the work prospects of parents, there are concerns that this agenda could have negative repercussions on other welfare areas such as the quality of childcare being provided to young children (DfEE, 1998). Lone parents in particular present a policy challenge as there is a need to ensure that whilst putting parents in a position that they are able to take up employment this should not be done in such a way that forces parents into work when they would be better employed providing childcare at home. Looking at the wider issues associated with the New Deal policy including the impact on childcare and child development enables a detailed policy analysis to be undertaken and recommendations for the future to be made(Zaslow, et al 2002). Thesis to be Tested The current New Deal agenda focuses too heavily on getting as many parents, particularly lone parents, into work. A failure to grasp the wider issues including the impact on the child of being in childcare from a young age and social factors such as the benefits of entering back into the workplace has resulted in the policy being less effective than the original aims would suggest it could be. Reform is needed to look at the wider issues and to ensure that the New Deal does not focus on short term gains with long term costs (Josh and Verropoulu, 2000). Potential Problems Issues relating to lone parents returning to work are often very individual with the policy being effective for one scenario but not for another. Gaining an overall perspective is therefore potentially difficult as one size does not fit all and several approaches may be necessary to answer the thesis question presented above. Indicative Bibliography (this is merely a starting point and will be added to considerably during the thesis itself) Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) (1998) The National Childcare Strategy. London: HMSO. http://www.dfee.gov.uk/childcare/content3.htm Dunifon, R., Kalil, A., and Bajracharya, A. (2005), ‘Maternal Working Conditions and Child Well-Being in Welfare-leaving Families’, Developmental Psychology, Vol 41(6), pp.851-59. DWP (2007), In work, better off: next steps to full employment, London: Department for Work and Pensions, The Stationery Office. Josh, H. and Verropoulu, G. (2000) Maternal Employment and Child Outcomes: Analysis of Two Birth Cohort Studies, London: The Smith Institute. Kaestner, R., Korenman, S. D., and O’Neill, J. (2003), ‘Has Welfare Reform Changed Teenage Behaviors?’, Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, vol. 22(2), pp.225-248. Millar, J. and Ridge, T. (2008), ‘Relationships of Care: Working Lone Mothers, their Children and Employment Sustainability’, Journal of Social Policy, vol. 33(1), pp.103-121. Zaslow, M., Moore K., Brooks J., Morris P., Tout K., Redd Z., and Emig C. (2002), ‘Experimental studies of welfare reform and children’, Children and Welfare Reform, vol. 12 (1), pp.79-98.